Description: Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul by Fredrik Hiebert (Editor) and Pierre Cambon (Editor). Also Published as “Afghanistan: Crossroads of the Ancient World.“ NOTE: We have 75,000 books in our library, almost 10,000 different titles. Odds are we have other copies of this same title in varying conditions, some less expensive, some better condition. We might also have different editions as well (some paperback, some hardcover, oftentimes international editions). If you don’t see what you want, please contact us and ask. We’re happy to send you a summary of the differing conditions and prices we may have for the same title. DESCRIPTION: Softcover. Publisher: National Geographic (2008). Pages: 304. Size: Size: 10 x 10 x 1 inch; 3¾ pounds. Summary: Almost 30 years ago, a precious trove of art was spirited away from the National Museum of Afghanistan by a small group of "keyholders" —museum guards, curators, and antiquities lovers who risked their lives to save the country’s cultural treasures. Their actions spared these magnificent pieces from the threat of destruction, first by the invading Soviets in 1979 and more recently by the Taliban. Exquisitely crafted in gold and ivory, the artifacts illustrate Afghanistan’s key place at the crossroads of Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, at the center of the ancient Silk Road—a rich heritage to be displayed at four major U.S. museums through 2009. Crowning this headline-making exhibition is a famous hoard of Bactrian gold, considered to be one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. To help create the exhibit and book, archaeologist and National Geographic Society Fellow Fredrik T. Hiebert inventoried the artifacts at the request of the Afghan government. Gorgeously photographed and elegantly packaged, the collection shines in this official companion to the much anticipated and widely covered tour. For the eager audiences who will visit, and for legions of art and history lovers across the United States, “Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures” provides a beautiful, affordable keepsake, a handsome gift, and a rare opportunity to appreciate this matchless tradition of artistry and the steadfast human spirit that preserved it. CONDITION: NEW. HUGE new softcover. Harry N. Abrams (1999) 352 pages. Unblemished in every respect except for faint edge and corner shelfwear to the covers. Inside the book is pristine, the pages are clean, crisp, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. I would also note that if you hold the book up to the light, you can see faint fine rubbing/scratching/scuffing to the covers, moreso to the back cover than the front (covers are photo-finish, high gloss black, and so show rub marks even merely from being shelved between other books). Condition is entirely consistent with new stock from a bookstore environment such as Barnes & Noble or B. Dalton), where otherwise "new" books might show minor signs of shelfwear, consequence simply of being shelved and re-shelved. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 14 days! #8895b. PLEASE SEE DESCRIPTIONS AND IMAGES BELOW FOR DETAILED REVIEWS AND FOR PAGES OF PICTURES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK. PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW. PUBLISHER REVIEWS: REVIEW: Renowned for a magnificently treacherous mountain terrain, and for a brave tradition that has defeated invaders from ancient nomads to the Soviet Army, the Afghans bestride one of the most famous and lucrative trading routes in history, the Silk Road. At the nexus of this route, Afghans laid claim to a fabulous wealth of treasures from Europe, the Middle East, China, India, Africa, and the West." "Among these troves, one glitters with a particular intensity. Lost for centuries and unearthed only months before the Russian invasion of 1979, this find and its centerpiece, known as the Bactrian Hoard, was saved from invaders and the Taliban by a group who have come to be known as "the key holders": curators and guards of the Afghan National Museum, who risked their lives to hide the finest pieces for nearly thirty years. These ordinary Afghans withstood the threat of violence (and in at least one case, actual torture) at the hands of ruthless would-be thieves, and endured hardship, hunger, fear and temptation to keep their dangerous secret, until the exquisite craftsmanship of the Bactrian Hoard was again revealed - and exhibited as a symbol of a newly resurgent Afghanistan." "This unique and beautiful collection travels the United States from the spring of 2008 until the fall of 2009. This volume is the catalogue for this exhibition, a stunning full-color portfolio of hundreds of photographs that captures all the drama, beauty, and historical heritage of the Bactrian Hoard and the Afghan culture it so eloquently represents. REVIEW: This book presents an introduction to the diverse and little-known culture of ancient Afghanistan, illustrating it's key place at the crossroads of Europe, the Middle East and Asia, along the Silk Road - one of the world's great trading routes. At risk of destruction by the Soviets during the 1979 invasion and more recently, the Taliban, a priceless fortune in art from the Afghan National Museum that was secreted by museum guards, curators and antiquities lovers who pledged never to give up their secret. The objects they fought and died to rescue form the basis for this headline-making exhibition. It includes centuries old artifacts such as the famous hoard of Bactrian gold, considered by many to be one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. All beautifully photographed and described by the author, the National Geographic Fellow who re-discovered the Bactrian Gold in 2004 and inventoried the collection at the request of the Afghan government. REVIEW: In 1988, Afghanistan was ten years into a violent civil war. As the security situation in the capital worsened, government and National Museum officials worried the Kabul museum, home to thousands of historical artifacts and works of art, would be destroyed or looted. They made a plan to transfer many of the objects to secret hiding places. By 1989, the transfer was complete, and caches of priceless historical objects were secured in the Ministry of Information and the Central Bank treasury vault at the presidential palace. Among the hidden treasures were Bronze Age gold pieces, hundreds of ancient coins, and the famous "Bactrian hoard," a collection of some 20,000 gold, silver, and ivory objects from burial plots at Tillya Tepe in northern Afghanistan. Workers involved in the transfer swore secrecy and designated "key holders" for the vaults. They kept their covenant through civil war and Taliban rule at enormous personal risk. The objects remained hidden despite nearly constant conflict and political upheaval in Kabul. But a campaign by the Taliban in 2001 to "destroy all images" resulted in the loss of thousands of irreplaceable artifacts throughout the country, including many of the items hidden in the Ministry of Information. But the palace treasures survived. In 2003, after the Taliban had been thrown from power by a U.S. military campaign and Afghanistan's first open elections had installed Hamid Karzai as president, a report from the Central Bank in Kabul revealed that the museum trunks deposited at the palace vault in 1989 were intact. A team of local and international experts, including archaeologist and National Geographic Fellow Fredrik Hiebert, assembled in Kabul to see the vault opened and verify the authenticity of its contents. When the first safe was finally cracked, the team saw piles of small plastic bags with old labels, each one containing beads and jewelry. Russian archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi, whose team had discovered the Tillya Tepe objects in 1979, smiled when he spotted an artifact with a small wire repair that he'd made with his own hands. In June of 2004, an announcement was made to the world that the Bactrian hoard and other hidden treasures of Afghanistan were found, and an international effort was mounted to preserve these collections and put them on exhibition for the world to see. "Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures From the National Museum, Kabul" offers the world a look at a selection of the contents of the Central Bank vault. It is a collection of some of the most remarkable archaeological finds in all of Central Asia, pieces that are not only artistically splendid but also reveal a diverse and thriving ancient culture. The exhibition includes four separate collections. One is from the ancient city of Fullol and includes a Bronze Age set of gold bowls that hint of the native wealth of Afghanistan. Another contains artifacts from Aï Khanum, a Greek city in northern Afghanistan. A third features untouched treasures from what is thought to be a merchant's storeroom in Begram, sealed up 2,000 years ago. And the fourth is the Bactrian gold, a collection of the precious items discovered in the graves of six nomads in Tillya Tepe. "Hidden Treasures" offers visitors a look not only at the rare and beautiful objects themselves but also at the history and significance of Afghanistan as a place of remarkable diversity. Aside from Fullol, the Bronze Age site, the collections relate to one of the most dynamic periods in Afghanistan's history, from the third century B.C. to the first century A.D., which covers the beginning of Silk Road trade. REVIEW: Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures provides a beautiful, affordable keepsake, a handsome gift, and a rare opportunity to appreciate this matchless tradition of artistry and the steadfast human spirit that preserved it. REVIEW: Features the cultural and historical treasures of Afghanistan that were smuggled out of the National Museum by guards, curators, and antiquities lovers, who protected them from destruction by the Soviets and the Taliban. REVIEW: Fredrik T. Hiebert is an archaeologist and explorer who has traced ancient trade routes overland and across the seas for more than 20 years. He has led excavations at ancient Silk Road sites across Asia, from Egypt to Mongolia and rediscovered the lost "Bactrian Gold" in Afghanistan in 2004. His excavations at a 4,000-year-old Silk Road city in Turkmenistan made headlines around the world. Hiebert joined the National Geographic Society in 2003. He is the author of “The Origins of Oasis Civilization in Central Asia” (1994), “A Central Asian Village at the Dawn of Civilization” (2006) and “Qal’at al-Bahain: A Trading and Military Outpost” (2006). Pierre Cambon is the chief curator of the Heritage of the Afghan/Pakistan Section of the Guimet Museum of Asiatic Arts in Paris, France. He is the editor of two books on the ancient cultures of Afghanistan: “Afghanistan: Une Histoire Millénaire” (2002) and “Afghanistan: Les Trésors Retrouvés” (2007) based on exhibitions at the Guimet Museum. TABLE OF CONTENTS: The National Museum of Afghanistan by Omara Khan Massoudi. Saving Afghanistan's Heritage by Carla Grissmann and Fredrik Hiebert. The Treasure of Tepe Fullol by Jean-François Jarrige. Tepe Fullol Catalog by Fredrik Hiebert. The Greek Colony at Aï Khanum and Hellinism in Central Asia by Paul Bernard. Aï Khanum Catalog by Paul Bernard. Begram, at the Heart of the Silk Roads by Sanjyot Mehendale. Begram, Alexandria of the Caucasus, Capital of the Kushan Empire by Pierre Cambon. Begram Catalog by Sanjyot Mehendale. Ancient Bactria's Golden Hoard by Viktor Ivanovich Sarianidi. Tillya Tepe, the Hill of Gold, a Nomad Necropolis by Véronique Schiltz. Tillya Tepe Catalog by Véronique Schiltz. PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS: REVIEW: Three gold bowls shining in a glass case pull visitors into the National Gallery of Art’s exhibit Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul. Visitors peer intently into the case, trying to make out the impressions of abstract Central Asian designs and Mesopotamian-influenced images of bearded bulls that decorate the 4,000-year-old bowls from a burial mound at Tepe Fullol. Gold items like these drove mujahideen fighters and Taliban zealots to search relentlessly for the museum’s treasures since 1988, when Omara Khan Massoudi, director of Afghanistan’s National Museum in Kabul, and a team of museum workers hid 22,607 of the museum’s finest artifacts dating from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 100. Unknown to nearly everyone, the ancient masterpieces, including ivory carvings from Begram and elaborate gold jewelry from Tillya Tepe, sat in a vault at the presidential palace as the nation’s capital descended into civil war following the end of Soviet occupation. For 20 years the archaeological community believed the artifacts had been destroyed or had disappeared into the antiquities market as a succession of mujahideen warlords won and lost control of Kabul. Finally the Taliban came, and smashed any artifact that seemed vaguely like a religious idol. With the museum collections destroyed or in hiding and the Afghan people struggling to survive, a two-decade rift has opened between the Afghans and the history that defines their nation. An entire generation now entering adulthood has grown up knowing almost nothing about Afghanistan’s place as a melting pot of civilizations from Greece to China. In 2002, Massoudi revealed the secret he and his staff had risked their lives to keep, but the crates were not opened until March 2004. “You can’t believe the emotions,” says Fred Hiebert, an expert in Central Asian archaeology who was part of the team of scholars who catalogued the artifacts in the bank vault and is curating the exhibition. “We would open up a box and out would come some treasure from the museum’s collections...95 percent of the masterpieces survived intact.” Because of security concerns the artifacts were taken out of Afghanistan without being shown. Then they were exhibited at museums throughout Europe before arriving in the United States in May. The exhibit devotes a room to each of the four major archaeological sites where the treasures were found: Tepe Fullol, AÏ Khanum, Begram, and Tillya Tepe. It will be in Washington, D.C. until September 7; San Francisco October 24–January 25, 2009; Houston February 22–May 17, 2009; and New York June 23–September 20, 2009. REVIEW: Ancient Afghanistan—at the crossroads of major trade routes and the focus of invasions by great powers and nomadic migrations—was home to some of the most complex, rich, and original civilizations on the continent of Asia. This exhibition celebrates the unique role of Afghanistan as a center for both the reception of diverse cultural elements and the creation of original styles of art that combine multiple stylistic materials—such as the Hellenized examples from the second-century B.C. city of Aï Khanum, the array of trade goods found in the first-century city of Begram, and the astonishing nomadic gold found in the hoard at Tillya Tepe, which also dates to the first century. It also commemorates the heroic rescue of the heritage of one of the world's great civilizations, whose precious treasures were thought to have been destroyed. Among the highlights of the exhibition are gold vessels from the Tepe Fullol hoard; superb works and architectural elements from Aï Khanum; Indian-style sculptural masterpieces in ivory, plaster medallions, and Roman glass from Begram; and extraordinary turquoise-encrusted gold jewelry and ornaments from the tombs at Tillya Tepe. Ancient Afghanistan—standing at the crossroads of major trade routes—was home to some of the most complex civilizations of Asia, where multiple artistic influences were intermingled. This exhibition celebrates this rich heritage and commemorates the heroic rescue of the most precious of Afghanistan's archaeological treasures. Among the highlights are spectacular objects unearthed from four sites: gold vessels from the Bronze Age hoard at Tepe Fullol; architectural elements and sculptures from the Hellenistic city of Aï Khanum; extraordinary Indian-style ivories, Roman glass, and other goods traded along the Silk Road, from the first- through second-century site at Begram, and spectacular turquoise-inlaid gold jewelry and luxury objects from the first-century nomadic tombs at Tillya Tepe. This exhibition highlights the amazing rediscovery of Silk Road treasures from Central Asia, thought to have been lost during decades of warfare and turmoil in Afghanistan. These masterpieces of the Kabul Museum collection remained hidden for twenty-five years, thanks to the heroism of the Kabul Museum's staff, who had secretly crated them and placed them in a secure bank vault. It was only in 2004 that the crates were opened to reveal that these works had survived intact. The spectacular arts displayed in these galleries also celebrate the pivotal role played by ancient northern Afghanistan—Bactria in western sources—as a strategic crossroads for trade and cultural exchange between East and West. Its culture reflects contacts with Greece, Iran, Mesopotamia, India, China, and the Eurasian steppes. Bactrian craftsmen absorbed the artistic traditions of these diverse lands and developed their own distinctive style. The works on view span Afghan history from 2200 B.C. to the second century A.D. and come from four archaeological sites: the Bronze Age site of Tepe Fullol; the Greco-Bactrian city of Aï Khanum, founded by the successors of Alexander the Great, who conquered the region in the fourth century B.C.; the major trading settlement of Begram, which flourished at the heart of the Silk Road in the first and second centuries A.D.; and the roughly contemporary necropolis of Tillya Tepe, where a nomadic chieftain and members of his household were buried with thousands of stunning gold objects and ornaments, many inlaid with turquoise and other semiprecious stones. REVIEW: Comparisons are inevitable when you see an exhibition in a second setting. “Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures From the National Museum, Kabul” was moving and illuminating at the National Gallery of Art in Washington in 2008. At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the last stop of its four-city American tour, it alternates between sparkling vitality and quiet grandeur. Here this beautiful and important show has more room, and possibly better lighting, resulting in a greater sense of clarity and drama. Not that there hasn’t been more than enough drama. The 200 objects on view, all pre-Islamic, are from around 2200 B.C. to the first or second century A.D. Most recently, they have survived — whether by stealth or luck — nearly three decades of devastation wrought by a civil war, the Soviet-Afghan War and the wrathful, ruinous reign of the Taliban. During this period, many important archaeological sites were destroyed, along with two-thirds of the collection of the National Museum in Kabul, which organized this exhibition with National Geographic. The pieces here include vessels, sculpture, architectural ornaments, jewelry and furniture decoration made in bronze, stone, glass, ceramic, ivory, gold and gemstone. They reflect Afghanistan’s astoundingly layered and diverse cultural heritage, a result of its location on the trade routes known collectively as the Silk Road and sundry invasions and migrations. The show is structured according to three archaeological sites and one messy discovery that were excavated or found in different times from the 1930s to the late 1970s, when the Soviets arrived. The oldest site is represented by only one bronze-age gold bowl and three fragments of another. Discovered in 1966 by farmers (who cut some of them up to share the profits), their Mesopotamian motifs, especially bearded bulls, forced scholars to revise the common understanding of the history of contact between the region and cities far to the west, in what is now Iran. Nearby displays jump forward to the third and second centuries B.C., with artifacts excavated in the late 1930s from the city known as Ai Khanum. They reflect the profound effects of Alexander the Great, who left more Greeks and Macedonians in the region than in any other he conquered. Corinthian capitals, the terra cotta roof decorations known as antefixes (whose leaf-shaped forms and raised decoration could be cookies) and a relief of a graceful male torso all reflect a Hellenic sensibility. Two severe sundials stand out as early exemplars of form following function. A small, vibrant female figurine of carved bone ivory strikes out on her own cultural path, bringing to mind Cycladic, Indian and Coptic art, while standing on a tiny stool. The next two galleries — the show’s heart — display objects from the first century A.D., excavated in the late 1930s and early ’40s from the remains of a structure in the Greco-Bactrian city of Begram. (Begram is just north of present-day Kabul, at the nexus of several trade routes.) The first gallery feels like a United Nations of cultures, with vitrines of small bronze figures of a decidedly Grecian mien, fish-shaped glass flasks in a style favored in Alexandria and simple glass goblets painted with elaborate scenes that could be Syrian, Roman or Egyptian. A row of small, cast plaster reliefs, perhaps used for making silver decorations, are exquisite, especially one depicting a helmeted youth seen in profile, with his back partly turned to us. Even more spectacular is the second Begram gallery, which features only ivory figures and plaques used to embellish furniture. The chief subject here is the voluptuous female, seen in three relatively large sculptures and numerous small reliefs that apparently depict harem scenes, with luxurious garden and architectural settings and, always, a door, provocatively ajar. Most fabulous of all is a worn plaque whose incised lines gracefully describe a musician and dancer. In 145 B.C. nomads swept down from the north and began to wipe out the Greco-Bactrian Empire, starting with Ai Khanum. They brought with them a proclivity for burying their rulers in all things gold: lavish jewelry, weaponry, garments with gold accessories and appliqués. Known as the Bactrian hoard, these objects were discovered in 1978. They show the mingling of Scythian and Chinese motifs as well as the frequent use of what modern viewers call the heart shape, often fashioned from turquoise and set in gold. Laid out according to the five tombs in which they were discovered, the hoard gives this remarkable show a literally blazing finale. My favorite piece remains a shimmering, almost paper-thin gold crown that consists of series of symmetrical treelike diadems cut in silhouettes that include an occasional heart shape and studded with flowers and hung with tiny discs. Carefully study reveals that it can be disassembled to travel flat, should the occasion demand. REVIEW: The history of Afghanistan is bloodied with wars, warlords, invasions and occupations, but as a vital stop along the ancient Silk Road, Afghanistan was also a place where traditions of the East and West met — a crossroads of cultural riches. The National Gallery of Art in Washington is exhibiting some artifacts that have outlasted all the wars and conflicts. The show is a mix of breath-catching beauty, artistry, derring-do and heroism. Exhibit curator Fredrik Hiebert explains that in the midst of the political chaos in the early 1980s, the staff of the Kabul Museum sneaked boxloads of cultural objects away and hid them for more than 20 years. Thousands of precious gold, bronze and glass pieces were transported from the museum to a secret hiding place — a bank vault in the presidential palace just a few miles outside Kabul. "They kept them safe by a code of silence," Hiebert says. If the museum staff had not hidden the ancient objects, the artifacts very likely would not have survived, says Abdul Wasey Feroozi, head of the Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage. "They are real heroes for having the understanding in the 1980s to take these treasures and hide them," Hiebert says. "That's what saved their culture." Traders traveling between China and Rome passed through Afghanistan for centuries, ringing aspects of their cultures with them. Traders left cups, plates and jewelry behind, and Afghan artisans incorporated the designs into their own work. The objects on display at the National Gallery are exquisitely designed, both for everyday use and for special ceremonies. Golden bowls, dating back more than 4,000 years, are the oldest artifacts in the exhibition. "It's really unusual to find ancient gold," Hiebert says. "Gold itself doesn't rust, doesn't deteriorate, so people tend to take old gold and melt it down." One of the most impressive pieces in the show is a golden crown from the first century B.C., found in the tomb of a well-fixed lady nomad. It was unearthed by Russian archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi in the late 1970s near the dividing line between Afghanistan and the former Soviet Union. Sarianidi had a moment of panic when he couldn't find the precious artifact in his tent at the excavation site. "Viktor went crazy," Hiebert remembers. "It turns out that this particular crown is a distinctive crown of nomads; it's a collapsible crown. It's made out of six separate pieces. Five pieces on top are shaped like trees, and they can be taken off and the bottom part folded up and placed in a package so the ancient nomad could gallop away. Well, one of his assistants had taken the crown apart, folded it up, and it was still in the tent." It is not known how often the nomad woman wore her collapsible golden crown, but Hiebert says that Afghanistan's ancient herders used their gold objects all the time. "They wore them day in and day out ... you can see the signs of wear," Hiebert says. "The definition of a nomad is someone who doesn't have a house. If they don't have a house, then they don't have banks. You are looking at the nomadic banking system. They are literally wearing their wealth." Looking at the golden crown, the turquoise-studded jewelry — necklaces, bracelets, rings, even the clasps that held their clothing together — it's clear, Hiebert says, that these first-century nomads were a people with a clear sense of self and a deep appreciation for beauty. In the harsh, brutal landscape of central Asia, beauty was either created or carried through by the Romans, Indians, Greeks, Chinese and others who plied the Silk Road many centuries ago. "Every time that people went through or invaded Afghanistan they left a little bit of themselves," Hiebert says. The National Museum of Afghanistan has the motto, "A Nation Stays Alive When Its Culture Stays Alive." In these days of Afghan tensions, the hidden treasures from Kabul's National Museum may find more tranquillity here than they would at home. REVIEW: Art objects inspire many reactions, perhaps most crucially acts of preservation or destruction. From 1979 to late 2001, destruction had the upper hand in Afghanistan. The Soviet-Afghan war, the ensuing civil war and finally the pernicious rule of the Taliban inflicted incalculable losses on active archaeological sites and ancient monuments and artworks. In March 2001 the world watched helplessly as the Taliban blew up the two giant Buddhas carved from existing rock that had faced each other across the Bamiyan Valley for 1,500 years. The progressive destruction of the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul was less blatant but equally tragic. Its collection of 100,000 artworks and artifacts — one of the finest in Asia — spanned several millenniums of Afghanistan’s rich, multicultural history. The museum suffered looting, bombing, fire; the Taliban ordered destruction of all depictions of the human figure. By the time they were driven from power in November 2001, the Kabul museum had lost two-thirds of its collection. (Since then the museum has been safe, although looting continues outside Kabul.) But isolated acts of preservation and some lucky circumstances also prevailed. In 1988 a small group of the Kabul museum’s staff hid crates packed with about 600 of its most precious artworks in the vault of the presidential palace. No one was sure how these crates had fared until 2004, when they were retrieved with their contents intact. Around 200 of these works are in “Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures From the National Museum, Kabul,” at the National Gallery of Art here. At once revelatory and heart-rending, this show, making a four-city American tour, has much to tell about Afghanistan, past and present. The objects in the exhibition date from 2200 B.C. to around the second century A.D., that is, from the Bronze Age to the height of the Kushan Empire, which reached nearly across Asia and deep into the Indian subcontinent. Included are Indian ivories, Roman-Egyptian glass vessels, Greek and Greco-Bactrian bronzes and carved stone, as well as a trove known as the golden hoard of Bactria, an ancient empire in northern Afghanistan. The combination offers a picture of Afghan cosmopolitanism, which was fed by the trade routes of the Silk Road, and the ethnic diversity resulting from invasions and peaceful migrations alike. Structured to focus on four important excavation sites, this show is the latest phase in a close working relationship between the National Geographic Society and the Kabul museum. It has been organized by the society in collaboration with the National Gallery and overseen by Fredrik Hiebert, a National Geographic Society fellow. It begins and ends with gold objects separated by more than two millenniums. The first group consists of three rare Bronze Age gold bowls, one intact and fragments of two others. They were found in 1972 at a single site, Tepe Fullol, in northeastern Afghanistan, but their very different styles reflect influences from across Asia. The designs on the intact bowl are abstract, a square divided by an X; each quadrant contains a stepped square found on artifacts from Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. One bowl fragment is strictly local, with motifs of a wild boar, trees and mountains. The other fragment features a majestic bearded bull, an image common to Mesopotamia, 1,200 miles to the west. Subsequent displays contain objects from the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanum, founded in 300 B.C. by a follower of Alexander the Great and excavated by French archaeologists from 1964 to 1978. (Destined for Kabul’s Institute of Archaeology, which was completely destroyed, these finds survived, unnoticed, in crates that never got farther than the Ministry of Information and Culture in Kabul.) This gallery contains two leafy Corinthian capitals; lidded, partitioned bowls (for unguents and perfumes); and a full-length statue of a man named Stratos who grasps the folds of his robe in one hand, a gesture that might have influenced centuries of statues of Buddhist sculptures. The showstopper in this section is a large ceremonial plaque in silver and gold from the third century B.C. that might have been part of Alexander’s entourage. It represents Cybele, the Greek goddess of nature, riding in a chariot driven by the winged goddess Nike, seen in profile. Their high, lion-drawn chariot seems Syrian, but the naturalism of the figures is largely Greek. This naturalism is at its best in the priest who walks behind the chariot, carrying a large parasol. He leans back with his head tilted up — making sure the deities are properly shaded — in a pose that has the alert springiness of a circus juggler. Also marvelous: the gold rocks and incised flowers underfoot. This show is, in a sense, a bundle of good news that only gets better. The largest and most diverse gallery contains objects found in two sealed rooms in the ancient ruins of Begram in the late 1930s. Whether they represent a king’s treasure or a merchant’s stock has not been determined, but the loveliness of many of the Greco-Roman bronzes (a small, youthful head of Silenus that could be from the Renaissance); the Egyptian-Roman glass (clear, opaque, painted, elaborately fretted); and the turned porphyry vessels is beyond dispute. Best of all, these displays attest to the survival of nearly all the Kabul museum’s revered Begram ivories. Whether made in India or locally, these small reliefs, used to decorate furniture, are exquisite. Deeply carved, they resemble gods and goddesses of Hindu temple sculpture. But the scenes here are miniature and worldly, dominated by curvaceous women unaccompanied by men (or gods); they enjoy one another’s company — sharing gossip, jokes or maybe wine — among elaborately carved archways and grills, and surrounded by opulent plants in gardens whose gates are left tantalizingly ajar. If gold is your thing, the show’s final galleries will be your idea of heaven. These contain the extraordinary jewelry, weapons, coins and clothing ornaments found in six royal graves (of five princesses and one prince) dating from the first century A.D. They were discovered in 1978 by an Afghan-Soviet archaeological team led by Viktor Sarianidi at Tillya Tepe in Bactria and hurriedly excavated in the months before the Soviet invasion. All the objects here are thought to have been made in a single Bactrian workshop and bespeak a culture that, like the Mongols’, wore its wealth, mostly sewn onto clothing in appliqués small and large, single or lavishly repeated, abstract and figurative. The most elaborate bow to mobility is an ingenious crown with five points — each a cut-out tree motif dangling scores of tiny gold, leaflike discs — that can be taken apart quickly and packed flat. Some of the pieces show a blending of cultural influences like nothing else in the exhibition. A small solid-gold Aphrodite that was once decorated with little pine-nut pieces of turquoise has a Greek “Winged Victory” drape, sickle-shaped wings and an Indian beauty mark, as well as a soft, rounded face; slightly saucy pose; and squat body that abandons the Greek ideal of female beauty for something more subcontinental. She might almost have danced straight out of a Bollywood movie poster. Often, in the cosseted quarters of a museum, we forget that every work of ancient art is a survivor, a representative of untold numbers of similar artworks that perished. This triumphant exhibition makes us remember, while demonstrating that every survivor saves much more than just itself: long strands of culture, identity and history waiting to be woven back together. REVIEW: Ask Americans about their perceptions of Afghanistan, and they'll likely point to images of drug-trafficking, religious extremism, and war. The organizers of a new exhibition at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art are hoping to change that. Ancient Afghanistan was home to highly developed civilizations with distinctive styles of art. Located at the crossroad of major trade routes, Afghanistan through the centuries was host to invaders and nomads, all of whom left their mark on the country's cultural map. The exhibition in New York -- titled "Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures From The National Museum, Kabul" -- presents a selection of works from four archaeological sites. Highlights include gold vessels from the Bronze Age; architectural elements from the Hellenistic city of Ai-Khanum; ivory sculptures, bronzes, and Roman glass from the city of Bagram; and turquoise-encrusted gold jewelry from the nomadic tombs at Tillya Tepe in northern Afghanistan. Most of the items on display had been in the collection of the Afghan National Museum in Kabul but were kept hidden in Afghanistan during the country's quarter-century of fighting between 1978 and 2003. During that time, many art lovers inside and outside the country had become convinced they had been sold abroad or destroyed by the Taliban. In fact, they had been placed in crates and stored in the basements of several buildings in central Kabul, including the presidential palace. Even when the Taliban was ousted in 2001, says exhibit curator Fredrik Hiebert, it took museum officials more than two years to feel trusting enough of the new Afghan government to reveal that the artifacts were safe. “The artifacts, the treasures, of the Kabul Museum had been hidden in safe places in Kabul," Hiebert said. "Every time there was a rumor about these artifacts being sold or disappearing somewhere, [museum officials] never said anything. They never said 'yes' or 'no.' And that saved the treasures. "So finally, in 2003 when they were ready to say, 'Yes, we have them,' it was a surprise to everybody -- the whole world.” Not all Afghan artifacts have been that lucky. In 2008, the International Council of Museums published a "red list" of Afghanistan antiquities at risk -- artifacts from the country's pre-Islamic and Islamic periods that have been lost or stolen. Police in Europe have been on high alert since 2004, when up to four tons of antiquities from Afghanistan were seized in illegal shipments. According to some reports, plundering from archaeological sites in Afghanistan has exceeded that in Iraq, and has often been violent. Police officers guarding archaeological sites have sometimes been murdered. Said Tayeb Jawad, Afghanistan's ambassador to the United States, says he has been actively involved in the process of recovering a number of his country's stolen artifacts. "It is our first priority to have these items in the museum in Afghanistan," Jawad says. "But until we have the security that is needed in order to display these things, I don’t mind if they are displayed in a museum in London or Moscow or in Paris, so the rest of the world can see them and it’s clearly labeled as an item from Afghanistan. What I am more concerned about is when they end up in a vault of a personal collector and nobody sees them.” Jawad says that during the Taliban's five-year rule, many priceless artifacts ended up in Pakistan. “In the past, especially during the [rule of the] Taliban and others, some high-ranking officials of the Pakistan government -- including Army General [Nasseerullah] Babar -- were involved in collecting and purchasing these things," Jawad says. "In fact, sometimes they would send people in with clear instructions on what item to look for and to take out [of the country]. "But this kind of looting unfortunately takes place inside Pakistan, too. The same criminals have been doing it in both Afghanistan and Pakistan.” Hiebert says the current New York exhibit is just the beginning of a five-year sponsorship program aimed at tracking down and returning stolen artifacts, and improving security in the National Museum in Kabul. An important goal, he says, is to train the local Kabul staff in museum administration and art preservation. “Training, training for the Afghans. Can you imagine a museum that’s been closed for 25 years?" Hiebert asks. "The museum director didn’t have access to any of his colleagues. The curators didn’t have anything to curate. The photographers didn’t have any objects to photograph. "So now our job is very serious. We have to help build the capacity in Afghanistan so that they can show these artifacts to the most important group -- Afghans and Afghanistan itself.” REVIEW: Extraordinary artifacts uncovered in modern-day Afghanistan—once the heart of the Silk Road linking cultures from Asia to the Mediterranean—long thought stolen or destroyed during some 25 years of conflict until the dramatic announcement of their existence in 2003, begin their United States tour at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, May 25 through September 7, 2008. The exhibition, co-organized by the National Geographic Society and the National Gallery of Art, will travel to the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, October 24, 2008 through January 25, 2009; the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, February 22 through May 17, 2009; and The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, June 23 through September 20, 2009. After its tour through Paris, Turin, and Amsterdam, the show was reorganized for the United States and accompanied by a new catalogue and a video documentary produced by National Geographic and narrated by the celebrated author, Khaled Hosseini. Revealing Afghanistan’s multicultural heritage are some 228 objects ranging in date from 2200 BC to the second century AD. Drawn from four archaeological sites, they belong to the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul and include fragmentary gold bowls with artistic links to Mesopotamia and Indus valley cultures (modern-day Pakistan) from the Bronze Age site of Tepe Fullol; bronze and stone sculptures and a gilded silver plaque from the former Greek colony at Aï Khanum (“Lady Moon”); bronzes, ivories, and painted glassware that had been imported from Roman Egypt, China, and India, and excavated from ancient storerooms discovered in the 1930s and 1940s in Begram; and more than 100 gold ornaments from the “Bactrian Hoard,” found in 1978 in Tillya Tepe, the site of six nomad graves, and revealing a synthesis of Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, Chinese, and Siberian styles. The exhibition will begin with a new map of modern Afghanistan created by National Geographic, which highlights the four archaeological sites featured in the show. Specially commissioned maps will be on display throughout the exhibition, including one that illustrates more than 1,500 archaeological sites, known to be in Afghanistan, which range in date from the prehistoric era through the 17th century. The exhibition is organized by site, beginning with objects from Tepe Fullol in northern Afghanistan. In 1966, farmers near the Afghan village of Fullol discovered the first evidence of a Bronze Age civilization in the region. Gold from the nearby Oxus riverbed most likely provided the gold for several bowls—part of a burial cache—found at the site, including a fragment of a bowl depicting bearded bulls from 2200 to 1900 BC. The second group of artifacts, from the site of the former Greek city Aï Khanum in a region that was conquered by Alexander the Great, reflects the Mediterranean influence in the area between the fourth and second centuries BC. The works include Corinthian capitals from before 145 BC, similar to one shown to the late Afghan King Zahir Shah in 1961, which led to the discovery of the site of Aï Khanum. They also include bronze and ivory sculptures representing Greek figures, as well as images of Central Asian figures carved in a Hellenistic style. The oldest artifact found is a ceremonial plaque made of gilded silver depicting Cybele, the Greek goddess of nature presiding within an orderly cosmos. There will be a digital reconstruction of the city of Aï Khanum as well as a site map. Items of trade from the third site, at Begram, date from between the first and second centuries AD. Elaborately carved Indian ivory reliefs and figurines used as decorative elements on furniture will be digitally reconstructed and shown on a monitor in the gallery with a site map of Begram. A painted goblet depicting figures harvesting dates and a bronze mask of Silenus are just a few of the artifacts discovered that shed light on the role of Afghanistan in the network of trade along the Silk Road. The fourth group consists of some 100 gold objects dating from the first century BC to the first century AD, they were among those discovered in 1978 by a Soviet-Afghan team led by Viktor Sarianidi at Tillya Tepe in northern Afghanistan. The site contained jewelry and gold ornaments from the graves of six nomads who overran Bactria in about145 BC and brought an end to the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms that had flourished there. The graves contained thousands of gold objects sewn onto the burial shrouds and clothing of the deceased. On view will be an exquisite crown, as well as necklaces, belts, rings, and headdresses—most made of solid gold with insets of semiprecious stones such as turquoise and garnets. Many of the Bactrian objects reflect local artisans’ distinctive blend of motifs known from Greek, Roman, Indian, and Chinese art. A remarkable catalogue is published by National Geographic Books. The fully illustrated, 304-page catalogue is edited by Fredrik Hiebert, exhibition curator and National Geographic Archaeology Fellow, and Pierre Cambon, scientific researcher, Laboratoire d’archéologie, ENS Ulm-CNRS,Paris. REVIEW: In Aï Khanum, archeologists uncovered an entire Greek town. In Begram, thousands of coins and two rooms sealed for more than two millennia were found. In Tillya Tepe the graves of a royal nomadic family were discovered, with more than 20.000 gold, silver and ivory objects. Many of these object vanished from the National museum in Kabul at the end of the 1980s. Fortunately, the objects weren't stolen or melted, as the rumors claimed. They were hidden by a select group of people sworn to secrecy. Throughout the civil war and Taliban rule, they kept their secret. It wasn't until 2003, after the American led allied invasion, that the chests in the vaults resurfaced and were finally opened in 2004. A total of 230 objects from this rich mosaic of Afghanistan's and the world's heritage will be on display in Trondheim. Almost two thousand years separate the oldest object from the youngest in the exhibition, which includes golden treasure, ivory carvings, glass figurines and bronze statuettes. REVIEW: A remarkable exhibition of stunning artifacts revealing Afghanistan’s rich culture. Afghanistan was at the heart of the Silk Road, the trading route travelled by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan and Marco Polo, linking ancient Iran, Central Asia, India and China, and the more distant cultures of Greece and Rome. This exhibition – with more than 230 priceless treasures, some thousands of years old – offers a rare opportunity to discover the surprising, untold story of the long and extraordinarily rich culture that is Afghanistan. For years these artifacts were thought lost or destroyed as war and instability shook the country. In 2003 they were uncovered from vaults in the central bank of the presidential palace, where they had been placed in secrecy by a few courageous staff from the National Museum, Kabul. Discover stories of bravery that protected these precious artefacts of gold, bronze and stone sculptures, ivories, painted glassware and other ancient works of art. REVIEW: Thanks to an effective integration of text and image, the book can stand alone, whereas the exhibition really does not. Museum visitors who want to experience more than a visceral gold rush must read the book to appreciate the artifacts, which come from very disparate archaeological contexts stretching from about 2200 B.C. to the first century A.D. The connections between a hoard of Bronze Age bowls, a Greek colonial city, six nomads' graves and an anonymous merchant's warehouse are not self-evident. [American Scientist]. REVIEW: Ancient Afghanistan-at the crossroads of major trade routes and the focus of invasions by great powers and nomadic migrations-was home to one of the most complex, rich, and original civilizations on the continent of Asia. This exhibition will celebrate the unique role of Afghanistan as a center for both the reception of diverse cultural elements and the creation of original styles of art-extending from the Bronze Age into the Kushan period. It will also commemorate the heroic rescue of the heritage of one of the world's great civilizations, whose precious treasures were thought to have been destroyed. Among the highlights of the exhibition will be gold vessels from the Khosh Tapa hoard; superb works and architectural elements from Ai Khanoum; extraordinary turquoise-encrusted gold jewelry and ornaments from the tombs at Tillya Tepe; and sculptural masterpieces in ivory, plaster medallions, and Roman glass from Begram. READER REVIEWS: REVIEW: This is a rich and beautiful document, illustrating not only the rich history of early Afghanistan, but the tragedy of the consequences of the Russian invasion and the war with the Taliban. Many years ago, I first read of the many treasures found in the National Geographic magazine. Subsequent to this, it was suggested that these pieces had all disappeared, suspected destroyed in the Russian invasion and subsequent Taliban attacks. The exhibit that this catalogue accompanies, came to North America in 2009, and is the result of some very brave men and women who hid the moveable treasures in a variety of undisclosed locations in Afghanistan, not discussing or telling anyone that the artifacts still existed. Once opened and revealed to the world, the decision was made to send many of the saved pieces out of Afghanistan, to travel from Museum to Museum, until it was deemed safe to bring the artifacts home. REVIEW: The most moving thing about this book is the heroic work of museum staff and others to preserve many of these treasures from the general predations of decades of war and the particular iconoclastic rage of the Taliban. Some of these objects have lain hidden behind walls and in basements for years like something out of a adventure movie. People who were paid pitiful wages or nothing risked their lives and risked torture kept their mouths closed to preserve their cultural heritage. It is truly inspiring. The most intriguing thing about this book is the witness it bears to hundreds of years of syncretism in the area of what we now call Afghanistan. We see dozens of examples like, say, figures bearing the iconography of Dionysus and the round faces and slanted eyes of the steppes, or vice versa, or Hercules' club beside a Buddhist lotus. There is something truly inspiring about the creativity engendered by the melting of Roman, Greek, Parthian, Bactrian, Kushan, Gandaharan, Mauryan, and other cultures that manifests in these objects. The illustrations are excellent. REVIEW: In a time when Afghanistan is seen as nothing more than a breeding ground for violence and terrorism, this book evokes a great sense of sympathy and wonder at the nation's fate. We often forget, or simply do not realize, that Afghanistan has a rich and varied culture and history. To read the lines and see the images of a now forgotten interwoven sense of culture and history is astonishing - but even more so are the stories of the individuals and organizations responsible for the excavation and safekeeping of these treasures, both literal and metaphorical. REVIEW: I recently visited the Beijing version of this exhibition. Though artifacts are wonderful, there is little information provided in the exhibition. This catalogue provides useful info. However, more research on artifacts are needed. Take the blue glass excavated in Begram as an example, there is little research included on its materials, craftsmanship and destination. Info of the kind can be found in Cornwall Museum's publication. On the whole, it is a useful reference. REVIEW: I wasn't able to see the exhibit this book is based on, but the book is worth getting for the pictures alone. The story of the various museum employees working to save as many of the artifacts from the Taliban as they could and suffering for doing so is both exciting and chilling. I use this story (and the ones of various people acting to save national treasures in Iraq and Egypt) to emphasize to my ancient history students that history is not just dates and pretty pictures. REVIEW: A beautiful book on the marvelous rich treasurers of this incredible nation. Makes you realize what an incredibly rich nation, and historical nation this truly is. We should NOT be hearing or seeing this nation ripped to bits! As a fabulous culture, and a historical part of the stories of the "Silk Road", we should do everything we can to help restore and reestablish this nation to its roots! This book is fantastic to display a bit of this understanding. REVIEW: Wonderful book! When I received it, I didn’t expect to see such great thing. Excellent explanations about the history and about the present situation with the culture in Afghanistan. Pictures are wonderful. I enjoy this book! REVIEW: I was so pleased when I received this. This is a truly fabulous book, and I will spend hours browsing over the beauties in this book. Many of these items may have already been destroyed by the Taliban, so it is wonderful to have a pictorial record of these beautiful items. REVIEW: This book is a gem. Every time I deliver my talk about Afghanistan some people would like to buy it off me .This is my third purchase. REVIEW: Sumptuous. Breathtaking photos of such beautiful jewellery and very informative essays. REVIEW: Five stars! Nicely laid out, good research and back ground text. Great photos! REVIEW: Beautifully illustrated of the exhibit I saw at the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. REVIEW: Five stars. Wonderful book, lots of history, beautiful pictures. REVIEW: Have shown it to Afghanis, and many were surprised. Pictures very beautiful. ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND: THE BRONZE AGE: A Brief Overview: The Bronze Age is a historical period that was characterized by the use of bronze, in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system proposed in modern times for classifying and studying ancient societies. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by producing bronze by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Bronze itself is harder and more durable than other metals available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological advantage. Worldwide the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition. While iron is naturally abundant its high melting point of about 2800 farenheit (1538 centigrade) placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tin's low melting point of 450 farenheit (232 centigrade) and copper's relatively moderate melting point of 1985 farenheit (1085 centigrade) placed them within the capabilities of the Neolithic pottery kilns. Neolithic (late Stone Age) pottery kilns date back to about 6,000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 1650 farenheit (900 centigrade). Copper-tin ores occur only rarely in nature. This is evidenced by the fact that there were no tin-alloyed bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing. According to archaeological evidence cultures in Mesopotamia developed cuneiform script and in Egypt hieroglyphs as the earliest practical writing systems. The overall period is of course characterized by widespread use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction and development of bronze technology were not globally synchronous. Human-made tin bronze technology requires precise production techniques. Tin must be mined mainly as the tin ore cassiterite and smelted separately. It is then added to molten copper to produce a tin-copper bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of extensive use of metals and of developing trade networks. A 2013 study suggests that the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to the mid-5th millennium BC in a Vinča culture site in Serbia), although this culture is not conventionally considered part of the Bronze Age. However the dating of the bronze artifact has been disputed. Western Asia and the Near East were the first regions widely recognized by scholars to enter the Bronze Age. This began with the rise of the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer in the mid 4th millennium BC. Cultures in the ancient Near East were along with India and Egypt termed a “cradle of civilization". Those cultures in the Near East practiced intensive year-round agriculture, developed a writing system, invented the potter's wheel, created a centralized government, written law codes, city and nation-states and empires. They embarked on advanced architectural projects, introduced social stratification, economic and civil administration, slavery, and practiced organized warfare, medicine and religion. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy, mathematics and astrology. The Bronze Age in the Near East can be divided into Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age periods. Though these divisions are not applicable globally, in the Near East the Early Bronze Age is generally agreed to encompass from 3300 to 2100 BC. The Middle Bronze Age is considered to be from 2100 through 1550 BC. And the Late Bronze Age from 1550 to 1200 BC. In nearby Anatolia the Bronze Age is generally associated with the Hittite Empire. The Hittite Empire was established in Hattusa in northern Anatolia from the 18th century BC. By the 14th century BC the Hittite Kingdom was at its height. It encompassed central Anatolia, southwestern Syria as far as Ugarit, and upper Mesopotamia. Around 1180 BC there was a period of turmoil in the Levant which many historians associate with the sudden arrival of the “Sea Peoples”. The origin and identity of the Sea Peoples is an area of uncertainty and controversy amongst ancient historians. It has been suggested and debated that the Sea Peoples were Sicilian, Etruscan, Trojan, Mycenaean or from the general area of the Aegean Sea; Minoan, early Phoenician/Philistine, or from non-Etruscan Italy. Written Egyptian sources describe them but do not identify them. The record from the Stele at/from the Battle of Tanis reads, “...They came from the sea in their war ships and none could stand against them..." As a result of their incursions into Anatolia the Hittite kingdom disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states. Some of these smaller city-states survived until as late as the 8th century BC. Arzawa in Western Anatolia during the second half of the second millennium BC likely extended along southern Anatolia in a belt that reaches from near the Turkish Lakes Region to the Aegean coast. Arzawa was the western neighbor of the Middle and New Hittite Kingdoms. Arzawa was sometimes a rival and sometimes a vassal of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms. The Assuwa League was a confederation of states in western Anatolia that was defeated by the Hittites around 1400 BC. Arzawa has been associated with the much more obscure Assuwa generally located to its north. It probably bordered it, and may even be an alternative term for it, at least during some time periods. In Ancient Egypt the Bronze Age begins in the Proto-Dynastic period, about 3150 BC. The archaic Early Bronze Age of Egypt is known to scholars of Egyptian history as the Early Dynastic Period. It immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, which occurred about 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties. It lasts then from the Proto-Dynastic Period of Egypt until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. With the First Dynasty the capital of Ancient Egypt moved from Abydos to Memphis. A unified Egypt was ruled by an Egyptian god-king. Abydos remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization took shape during the Early Dynastic Period. These would include art, architecture and many aspects of religion. Memphis in the Early Bronze Age was the largest city of the time. In the 3rd millennium BC Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement. The “Old Kingdom” of the regional Bronze Age is the name given to the period. This was the first of three "Kingdom" periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley. The other two succeeding kingdoms are known as the “Middle Kingdom” and the “New Kingdom”. Between these kingdoms are what are known as historians as “intermediate periods”. The First Intermediate Period of Egypt is often described as a "dark period" in ancient Egyptian history. It spanned about 100 years after the end of the Old Kingdom from about 2181 to 2055 BC. Very little monumental evidence survives from this period, especially from the earliest part of it. The First Intermediate Period was a dynamic time when the rule of Egypt was roughly divided between two competing for power bases: Heracleopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These two kingdoms would eventually come into conflict. The kings of Thebe eventually conquered the north. This resulted in the reunification of Egypt under a single ruler during the second part of the 11th Dynasty. The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 2055 to 1650 BC. During this period the Osiris funerary cult rose to dominate Egyptian popular religion. The period comprises two phases. It starts with the 11th Dynasty which ruled from Thebes. It concluded with the 12th and 13th Dynasties centered on el-Lisht. The unified kingdom was previously and traditionally considered to comprise the 11th and 12th Dynasties. However historians now consider at least a portion of the 13th Dynasty to belong to the Middle Kingdom. During the Second Intermediate Period Ancient Egypt again fell into disarray for a second time. This time period was between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The Period is best known for the reign of the Hyksos, who ruled ancient Egypt during the 15th and 16th dynasties. The Hyksos first appeared in Egypt during the 11th Dynasty. They began their ascent to power during the 13th Dynasty. The Hyksos emerged from the Second Intermediate Period in control of Avaris and the Delta. By the 15th Dynasty they ruled Lower Egypt. They were not expelled from Egypt until the end of the 17th Dynasty. The New Kingdom of Egypt lasted from the 16th to the 11th century BC. It was also known as the “Egyptian Empire”. The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of Egypt's power. The later New Kingdom of the 19th and 20th Dynasties is often referred to as the Ramesside period. It is so named after the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses during the period between 1292 and 1069 BC. Elam was a pre-Iranian ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia. In the Old Elamite or Middle Bronze Age Period Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian Plateau. These kingdoms were initially centered in Anshan. From the mid-2nd millennium BC it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Iranian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it. The Oxus civilization was a Bronze Age Central Asian culture. It was centered on the upper Amu Darya, or “ Oxus”, during the period of about 2300 to 1700 BC. In the Early Bronze Age the culture of the Kopet Dag oases and Altyndepe developed a proto-urban society. This corresponds to level IV at Namazga-Tepe. Both Altyndepe and Namazga-Tepe were major ancient population centers in present-day Turkmenistan near the Iranian border. Altyndepe was a major center even then. Pottery was wheel-turned. Grapes were grown. The height of this urban development was reached in the Middle Bronze Age around 2300 BC, corresponding to level V at Namazga-Depe. This Bronze Age culture is called the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex. The Kulli culture was similar to those of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was located in present-day in southern Balochistan from about 2500 to 2000 BC. The area is a region of present-day Pakistan, and was known in Hellenic times as “Gedrosia”. Agriculture was the economic base of these people. At several places, dams were found, providing evidence for a highly develop water management system. Konar Sandal is associated with the hypothesized "Jiroft culture" of Iran. This was a 3rd millennium BC culture postulated based on a collection of artifacts confiscated in 2001. In the Levant modern scholarship has divided the chronology of the Bronze Age Levant into “Early” or “Proto Syrian”. This corresponds to the Early Bronze Age. Then the succeeding period is known as “Old Syrian”. This corresponds to the Middle Bronze Age. Finally the “Middle Syrian” period corresponds to the Late Bronze Age. The term “Neo-Syrian” is used to designate the early Iron Age. The old Syrian period was dominated by the Eblaite first kingdom, Nagar and the Mariote second kingdom. The Akkadian conquered large areas of the Levant and were followed by the Amorite Kingdoms from around 2000 to 1600 BC. These Amorite Kingdoms arose in Mari, Yamhad, Qatna, and Assyria. From the 15th century BC onward the term “Amurru” is usually applied to the region extending north of Canaan as far as Kadesh on the Orontes River. The earliest known Ugaritic contact with Egypt comes from a carnelian bead found in Ugarit identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, who reigned from 1971 to 1926 BC. This is as well the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found in Ugarit. However, it is unclear precisely when these monuments got to Ugarit. In the Amarna letters messages from Ugarit around 1350 BC were discovered. They were written by Ugarit Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen. From the 16th to the 13th century BC Ugarit remained in constant contact with Egypt and Cyprus, then known as “Alashiya”. The Mitanni was a loosely organized state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from about 1500 to 1300 BC. Founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class that governed a predominantly Hurrian population, the Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Kassite Babylon created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At its beginning the Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However with the ascent of the Hittite Empire, the Mitanni and Egyptians allied to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. At the height of its power during the 14th century BC the Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, Washukanni. Archaeologists have located this site on the headwaters of the Khabur River. Eventually the Mitanni succumbed to the Hittite and later Assyrian attacks. It was reduced to a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire. The Israelites were an ancient Semitic-speaking people of the Ancient Near East. They inhabited part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods, approximately from the 15th to 6th centuries BC. The Israelites lived in the region in smaller numbers after the fall of the monarchy. The name "Israel" first appears around 1209 BC. This was at the end of the Late Bronze Age and the very beginning of the Iron Age. The name appears on the Merneptah Stele raised by the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah. The Arameans were a Northwest Semitic semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who originated in what is now modern Syria, or Biblical Aram. They were a distinct population during the Late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age. Large groups migrated to Mesopotamia, where they intermingled with the native Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian population. The Aramaeans never formed a unified empire. They were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. After the Bronze Age collapse their political influence was confined to many Syro-Hittite states. These were entirely absorbed into the Neo-Assyrian Empire by the 8th century BC. The Mesopotamian Bronze Age began about 3500 BC and ended with the Kassite period. The Kassite Period was from about 1500 to 1155 BC. The usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used with respect to the Mesopotamian Bronze Age. Instead division primarily based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people. Ur, Kish, Isin, Larsa and Nippur were the major cities in the Middle Bronze Age. Babylon, Calah and Assur in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The Akkadian Empire became the dominant power in the region from about 2335 through 2154 BC. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire the Sumerians enjoyed a renaissance duringthe Neo-Sumerian Empire. The origins of Assyria are found as early as the 25th century BC. Assyria became a regional power during the Old Assyrian Empire from about 2025 through 1750 BC. The earliest mention of Babylon appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC. Babylon was at that time merely a small administrative town. The Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later it briefly took over the other city-states. By so doing it formed the short-lived First Babylonian Empire. This is also known to contemporary historians as the Old Babylonian Period. Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia all used the written East Semitic Akkadian language for official use and as a spoken language. By that time the Sumerian language was no longer spoken. However the Sumerian language was still in religious use in Assyria and Babylonia. It would remain so used until the 1st century AD. The Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in later Assyrian and Babylonian culture. This was despite Babylonia itself was founded by non-native Amorites, unlike the more militarily powerful Assyria. And it was also despite the fact that Babylonia was often ruled by other non-indigenous peoples. These included Kassites, Arameans and Chaldeans, as well as its Babylonia’s Assyrian neighbors. In Central Asia the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex is dated to about 2400 to 1600 BC. Also known as the Oxus civilization, it was a Bronze Age civilization in Central Asia. It was located in what is present-day northern Afghanistan, eastern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan. It was centered on the upper Amu Darya, or Oxus River. Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi in 1976. Bactria was the Greek name for the area of “Bactra” (modern Balkh), in what is now northern Afghanistan. Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of “Marguš”, the capital of which was Merv, in modern-day southeastern Turkmenistan. According to recent studies [28] the region civilization was not a primary contributor to later South-Asian genetics. The Altai Mountains in what is now southern Russia and central Mongolia have been identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon. It is theorized that there were significant changes in climate in this region around 2000 BC. The ensuing ecological, economic and political changes triggered a rapid and massive migration. The populations of this region migrated westward into northeast Europe, eastward into China and southward into Vietnam and Thailand. This migration took place across a frontier of some 4,000 miles in just five to six generations. The migration led to peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing the same metal working technology. In some areas the same techniques of horse breeding and riding arose. It is further conjectured that the same migrations spread the Uralic group of languages across Europe and Asia. Some 39 languages of this group are still extant, including Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian. However recent genetic testing in south Siberia and Kazakhstan support a contrary theory. The testing supports the hypothesis that the spread of bronze technology occurred via Indo-European migrations eastwards. Bronze technologies were well known for quite a while in western regions. In China the earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site dating to between 3100 and 2700 BC. The term "Bronze Age" has been transferred to the archaeology of China from that of Western Eurasia. There is no consensus or universally used convention delimiting the "Bronze Age" in the context of Chinese prehistory. By convention the "Early Bronze Age" in China is sometimes taken as equivalent to the "Shang Dynasty" period of Chinese prehistory, 16th to 11th centuries BC). The "Later Bronze Age" as equivalent to the "Zhou Dynasty" period (11th to 3rd centuries BC). From the 5th century BC onward there is evidence of an "Iron Age" technology. However many scholar argue that that the "Bronze Age" proper never ended in China. Their arguments are supported by the fact that there was no recognizable transition from the “Bronze Age” to an "Iron Age". Significantly bronze art together with the jade art that precedes it was seen as a "fine" material for ritual art when compared with iron or stone. Stone only became popular for tombs in the Han. Stone tombs replaced wooden temple structures under probable Indian influence. Bronze metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the Erlitou period. Some historians argue this places the Bronze Age within the range of time controlled by the Shang Dynasty. Other historians believe the Erlitou sites belong to the preceding Xia Dynasty. The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the "period between about 2000 BC and 771 BC. This is a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule. The widespread use of bronze in Chinese metallurgy and culture dates to significantly later. Many scholars believe that the introduction and widespread use of bronze was probably due to Western influence. It could be that bronze work developed inside China independent of outside influence. However the discovery of European mummies in Xinjiang, China suggests a possible route of transmission from the West. This could have occurred beginning in the early second millennium BC. In either event, whether bronze metallurgy developed internally or spurred by external trade contacts, it is speculation since there is a lack of direct evidence either way. A few human mummies alone cannot provide sufficient explanation of metallurgical technology transmission. Furthermore the oldest bronze objects found in China so far were discovered at the Majiayao site in Gansu rather than Xinjiang. The Shang Dynasty of the Yellow River Valley rose to power after the Xia dynasty around 1600 BC. The Shang Dynasty is also known to some scholars as the Yin dynasty. Some direct information about the Shang Dynasty comes from Shang-era inscriptions on bronze artifacts. However most information comes from oracle bones which bear glyphs that form the first significant corpus of recorded Chinese characters. The oracle bones have included turtle shells, cattle scapulae, or other bones. Iron is found from the Zhou dynasty, but its use is minimal. Chinese literature dating to the 6th century BC attests knowledge of iron smelting. However bronze technology continues to be the most significant metallurgical industry in the archaeological and historical record for some time after this. Historians point out that iron did not supplant bronze at any period prior the end of the Zhou dynasty in 256 BC. Even after that point in time, bronze vessels made up the majority of metal vessels through the Later Han period, or to 220 AD. Chinese bronze artifacts generally are either utilitarian or "ritual bronzes". Utilitarian bronzes include, for instance, spear points or adze heads. Ritual bronzes are more elaborate versions in precious materials of everyday vessels, as well as tools and weapons. Examples are the numerous large sacrificial tripods known as dings in Chinese. There were many other distinct shapes. Surviving identified Chinese ritual bronzes tend to be highly decorated. Oftentimes the decorations take the form of the taotie motif. This involved highly stylized animal faces. These appear in three main motif types: those of demons, of symbolic animals, and abstract symbols. Many large bronzes also bear cast inscriptions. These comprise the great bulk of the surviving body of early Chinese writing. They have immensely helped historians and archaeologists piece together the history of China. This is especially true of the Zhou Dynasty, 1046 to 256 BC. The bronzes of the Western Zhou dynasty document large portions of history. This history is not to be found in the extant manuscripts that were often composed by persons of varying rank and possibly even social class. Furthermore the medium of cast bronze lends the record they preserve a permanence not enjoyed by manuscripts. These inscriptions can commonly be subdivided into four parts. There’s first a reference to the date and place. The second is the naming of the event commemorated. The third is the list of gifts given to the artisan in exchange for the bronze. Last is a dedication. The relative points of reference these vessels provide have enabled historians to place most of the vessels within a certain time frame of the Western Zhou period. This has allowed them to trace the evolution of the vessels and the events they record. The beginning of the Bronze Age on the Koran peninsula occurred around 1000 to 800 BC. The Korean Bronze Age culture derives from the Liaoning and Manchuria. Nonetheless it exhibits unique typology and styles, especially in ritual objects. The Mumun pottery period is named after the Korean name for undecorated or plain cooking and storage vessels. These form a large part of the pottery assemblage over the entire length of the period, but especially 850 to 550 BC. The Mumun period is known for the origins of intensive agriculture and complex societies. This applies not only to the Korean Peninsula, but to the Japanese Archipelago as well. The Middle Mumun pottery period culture of the southern Korean Peninsula gradually adopted bronze production somewhere between 700 and 600 BC. This occurred following a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artifacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula during the time period between 900 and 700 BC. The bronze daggers lent prestige and authority to the personages who wielded and were buried with them. High-status megalithic burials occurred at south-coastal centers such as the Igeum-dong site. Bronze continued to be an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary offerings until 100 AD. The introduction of Bronze Age technology to the Japanese archipelago occurred during the beginning of the Early Yayoi period, about 300 BC. This period witnessed the introduction of both metalworking and agricultural practices brought in by settlers arriving from the continent. Bronze and iron smelting techniques in particular spread to the Japanese archipelago through contact with other ancient East Asian civilizations. This was particularly due to immigration from and trade with the Korean peninsula and ancient Mainland China. Iron was mainly used for agricultural and other tools, whereas ritual and ceremonial artifacts were mainly made of bronze. The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Late Harappan Culture dates from 1900 to 1400 BC. It overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Due to this overlap it is difficult to date this transition accurately. It has been claimed that a 6,000 year old copper amulet manufactured in Mehrgarh in the shape of wheel spoke is the earliest example of lost wax casting in the world. In Ban Chiang, Thailand bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BC. However according to the radiocarbon dating on the human and pig bones in Ban Chiang, some scholars propose that the initial Bronze Age in Ban Chiang was in late 2nd millennium, almost a thousand years later. Ban Non Wat in Thailand is a site recently excavated and proved to be a rich site with over 640 graves excavated. Many complex bronze items excavated may have had social value connected to them. Ban Chiang however is the most thoroughly documented site in Thailand and Southeast Asia. It has the clearest evidence of metallurgy when it comes to Southeast Asia. In general the site has a rough date range of late 3rd millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD. The site has produced various artifacts such as burial pottery dating from 2100 to 1700 BC). The site has also produced fragments of bronze and copper-base bangles. What's most interesting about this site however is not just limited to the old age of the artifacts. What is particularly significant is that the artifacts related to the technology suggest on-site casting from the very beginning. The on-site casting supports the theory that Bronze was first introduced in Southeast Asia as fully developed. This would support the presupposition that bronze technology was an innovation from a different country. Some scholars believe that the copper-based metallurgy was disseminated from northwest and central China via south and southwest areas such as Guangdong province and Yunnan province. They postulate that bronze technology finally spread into southeast Asia around 1000 BC. Archaeology also suggests that Bronze Age metallurgy may not have been as significant a catalyst in social stratification and warfare in Southeast Asia as in other regions. Scholars believe that social structure shifted away from chiefdom-states to a heterarchical network. Data analyses of various contemporaneous regional sites have consistently led researchers to conclude that there was no entrenched hierarchy. In Nyaunggan, Burma, bronze tools have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating of these artifacts is still currently broad, estimates ranging anywhere from 3500 to 500 BC. In Vietnam the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drum, were uncovered. Dating back to the Neolithic Age they were excavated in and around the Red River Delta regions of Northern Vietnam and Southern China. These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam. Archaeological research in Northern Vietnam indicates an increase in rates of infectious disease following the advent of metallurgy. Skeletal fragments in sites dating to the early and mid-Bronze Age evidence a greater proportion of lesions than in sites of earlier periods. There are a few possible implications of this. One is the increased contact with bacterial and/or fungal pathogens due to increased population density and land clearing/cultivation. The other one is decreased levels of immunocompetence in the metal age due to changes in the diet caused by agriculture. The last is that there may have been an emergence of infectious disease in the Da But period that evolved into a more virulent form in the metal period. With respect to the Bronze Age in Europe, a study in the journal Antiquity published in 2013 reported the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site securely dated to about 4650 BC. It also reported on 14 other artifacts from Serbia and Bulgaria dated to before 4000 BC. These finds have shown that early tin-bronze was more common than previously thought. The tin-bronze technology evidently developed independently in Europe 1500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East. The production of complex tin bronzes lasted for about 500 years in the Balkans. The evidence for the production of such complex bronzes disappears at the end of the 5th millennium, i.e., shortly before 4000 BC) This coincides with the collapse of large cultural complexes in north-eastern Bulgaria and Thrace in the late 5th millennium BC. Tin bronzes using cassiterite tin would be reintroduced to the area again some 1500 years later. The Aegean Bronze Age began around 3200 BC when civilizations in the region first established a far-ranging trade network. This network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus. In Cyprus copper was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide and supported the trade. Isotopic analysis of tin in some Mediterranean bronze artifacts suggests that they may have originated from Great Britain. Knowledge of navigation was well developed at this time. Navigation skills reached a peak of skill not exceeded until 1730 when the invention of the chronometer enabled the precise determination of longitude. The only possible exception may have been by Polynesian sailors. The Minoan civilization based in Knossos on the island of Crete appears to have coordinated and defended its Bronze Age trade. Illyrians are also believed to have roots in the early Bronze Age. The Aegean Bronze Age “collapsed” around 1200 BC, leading to what historians oftentimes term the “Greek Dark Ages” The era was characterized by invasions, destruction, and population emigrations. Bronze Age collapse theories have described aspects, causes, and ramifications of the end of the Bronze Age in this region. At the end of the Bronze Age in the Aegean region, the Mycenaean administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy. Several Minoan client states lost much of their population to famine and/or pestilence. This would indicate that the trade network may have failed. The failure would have precluded the trade in basic agricultural products that would previously have relieved such famines and prevented illness caused by malnutrition. It is also known that in this era the breadbasket of the Minoan empire was the area north of the Black Sea. This region too suddenly lost much of its population. The loss in population may have led to a loss of commensurate capacity to cultivate crops. Drought and famine in Anatolia may have also led to the Aegean collapse by disrupting trade networks. The Aegean might have no only been unable to import agricultural products, but also may have been prevented the Aegean from accessing bronze and luxury goods. The Aegean collapse has been attributed to the exhaustion of the Cypriot forests and the coal they produced causing the end of the bronze trade. These forests are known to have existed into later times. Experiments have shown that charcoal production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late Bronze Age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years. The Aegean collapse has also been attributed to the fact that as iron tools became more common. The primary justification for the tin trade ended as demand for bronze production ceased, and that trade network ceased to function as it did formerly. The colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of those three. And they no longer had access to the distant resources of their former empire which might have enabled a recovery. The Thera eruption occurred around 1600 BC less than 70 miles (110 kilometers) north of Crete. Thera is more commonly known today as Santorini. Speculation includes a tsunami from Thera destroying Cretan cities. A tsunami may indeed have destroyed the Cretan navy in its home harbor. In turn the Minoans then lost crucial naval battles. The net result was that around 1450 BC the cities of Crete were sacked and burned. The Mycenaean civilization then took over Knossos. Most historians and chronologists believe that the eruption of Thera occurred in the late 17th century BC. If that is true then its immediate effects belong to the Middle to Late Bronze Age transition, and not to the end of the Late Bronze Age. However the eruption and the ensuing devastation could have triggered the instability that led to the collapse of Knossos. The subsequently to the collapse of Bronze Age society overall. Archaeological findings including some on the island of Thera suggest that the center of the Minoan civilization at the time of the eruption was actually on Thera rather than on Crete. According to this theory the catastrophic loss of the political, administrative and economic center due to the eruption precipitated the decline of the Minoans. Add to that the damage wrought by the tsunami to the coastal towns and villages of Crete. A weakened political entity with a reduced economic and military capability and fabled riches would have then been more vulnerable to conquest. Indeed the Santorini eruption is usually dated to about 1630 BC. The Mycenaean Greeks first enter the historical record a few decades later around 1600 BC. The later Mycenaean assaults on Crete which occurred around 1450 BC), and subsequently upon Troy around 1250 BC, would have been according to this theory a continuation of the steady encroachment of the Greeks upon the weakened Minoan world. In Central Europe the early Bronze Age Unetice culture of 1800 to 1600 BC includes numerous smaller groups like the Straubing, Adlerberg and Hatvan cultures. Some very rich burials such as the one located at Leubingen with grave gifts crafted from gold point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle Bronze Age Tumulus Culture from about 1600 to 1200BC. The Tumulus Culture was is characterized by inhumation burials in tumuli, or barrows. In the eastern Hungarian Körös tributaries the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the Mako culture. This was followed by the Otomani and Gyulavarsand cultures. The late Bronze Age Urnfield culture stretched from about 1300 through 700 BC. It was characterized by cremation burials. It includes the Lusatian culture in eastern Germany and Poland. The Lusatian culture ran from 1300 through 500 BC) and continued into the Iron Age. The Central European Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which ran from about 700 through 450 BC. Important Bornze Age archaeological sites include Biskupin in Poland, Nebra in Germany, Vráble in Slovakia, and Zug-Sumpf, Zug, in Switzerland. The Bronze Age in Central Europe has been divided chronologically into Bronze Age A1 (BzA1) which encompassed the period 2300 to 2000 BC. The archaeological artifacts characteristic of the period are triangular daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards, flint arrowheads. The period following A1 was Bronze Age A2 (BzA2), which encompassed the period of 1950–1700 BC. The archaeological artifacts which characterized this period were daggers with metal hilt, flanged axes, halberds, pins with perforated spherical heads, and solid bracelets. Following Bronze Age A1 and A2 were Bronze Age phases of the Hallstatt Cultural A and B (Ha A and HaB). The Apennine Culture was also called Italian Bronze Age. This was a technology complex of central and southern Italy spanning the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. The Camuni were an ancient people of uncertain origin. According to the 1st century Roman author and philosopher Pliny the Elder, they were Euganei. According to the 1st century Greek historian Strabo, they were Rhaetians who lived in Val Camonica during the Iron Age. Human groups of hunters, shepherds and farmers are known to have lived in the area since the Neolithic. Located in Sardinia and Corsica, the Nuragic civilization lasted from the early Bronze Age of about the 18th century BC to the 2nd century AD when the islands were already Romanized. They take their name from the characteristic Nuragic towers of the pre-existing megalithic culture which built dolmens and menhirs. The nuraghe towers are unanimously considered the best-preserved and largest megalithic remains in Europe. Their effective use is still debated. Some scholars consider them to be monumental tombs. Other scholars believe they were built as houses for mythological giants. Other scholars believe that they were utilized as fortresses. Others believe them to be ovens for metal fusion. Yet others believe that they were built as prisons. Finally there are those who believe that they were built as temples for a solar cult. Around the end of the 3rd millennium BC Sardinia exported towards Sicily a culture that built small dolmens that served as tombs, as it has been ascertained in the Sicilian dolmen of “Cava dei Servi”. These were trilithic or polygonal in shape. From this region the culture and its iconic domens reached Malta island and other countries of Mediterranean basin. The Terramare was an early Indo-European civilization in the area of what is now Pianura Padana in northern Italy, as well as in other areas of Europe. The Terramare predate the Celts. They lived in square villages of wooden stilt houses. These villages were built on land, but generally near a stream. The villages were characterized by roads that crossed each other at right angles. The whole complex denoted the nature of a fortified settlement. Terramare was widespread in the Pianura Padana, especially along the Panaro river, between Modena and Bologna. The civilization developed in the Middle and Late Bronze Age between the 17th and the 13th centuries BC. The Castellieri Culture developed in Istria during the Middle Bronze Age. Istria is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Kvarner Gulf. In the contemporary world it is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy. The Castellieri Culture lasted for more than a millennium, from the 15th century BC until the Roman conquest in the 3rd century BC. It takes its name from the fortified boroughs that characterized the culture. The Canegrate culture developed from the mid-Bronze Age until the Iron Age, or from about the 13th century BC. It was centered around the Pianura Padana, in what are now western Lombardy, eastern Piedmont and Ticino. It takes its name from the township of Canegrate. There in the 20th century some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects were found. The Canegrate culture migrated from the northwest part of the Alps and descended to Pianura Padana from the Swiss Alps passes and the Ticino. The Golasecca Culture developed starting from the late Bronze Age in the Po plain. It takes its name from Golasecca, a locality next to the Ticino where. There in the early 19th century abbot Giovanni Battista Giani excavated its first findings comprising some fifty tombs with ceramics and metal objects. Remains of the Golasecca culture span an area of about 20,000 square kilometers or almost 8,000 square miles. The region they inhabited included from the Po plain south to the Alps, between the Po, Sesia and Serio rivers. The culture dated from the 9th to the 4th century BC. The Atlantic Bronze Age of Western Europe was a cultural complex of the period of approximately 1300 to 700 BC. It included different cultures in Portugal, Andalusia (Spain), Galicia (France), and the British Isles. It was marked by economic and cultural exchange. Commercial contacts extended to Denmark and the Mediterranean. The Atlantic Bronze Age was defined by many distinct regional centers of metal production. These centers of product were unified by a regular maritime exchange of some of their products. In Great Britain the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2100 to 750 BC. Migration brought new people to the islands from the continent. Recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge indicates that at least some of the migrants came from the area of modern Switzerland. Another significant site is Must Farm, near Whittlesey. Recently the most complete Bronze Age wheel ever to be found was discovered there. The Beaker culture displayed different behaviors from the earlier Neolithic people, and cultural change was significant. Integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many of the early henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. The rich Wessex culture developed in southern Britain at this time. However the climate was deteriorating. Where once the weather was warm and dry, it became much wetter. As the Bronze Age continued the changing weather forced populations away from easily defended sites in the hills and into the fertile valleys. Large livestock farms developed in the lowlands. These appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearing. The Deverel-Rimbury culture began to emerge to exploit Te commercial conditions of the Bronze Age. This occurred during the second half of the Middle Bronze Age from about 1400 through 1100 BC. Devon and Cornwall became major sources of tin for much of Western Europe. Copper was also extracted from sites such as the Great Orme mine in northern Wales. Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent. The burial of the dead had been until this period generally communal. However the was a notable transition to individual burials as the culture entered the Bronze Age. In the Neolithic a large chambered cairn or long barrow housed the dead. Early Bronze Age people buried their dead in individual barrows. These are commonly known and marked on modern British Ordnance Survey maps as tumuli. Alternatively in the Early Bronze Age if burials were not in tumuli, they would sometimes be in cists covered with cairns. The greatest quantities of bronze objects in England were discovered in East Cambridgeshire. The most important of these were in Isleham where more than 6500 pieces were recovered. The alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper itself. One copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales extended to a depth of 70 meters (230 feet). At Alderley Edge in Cheshire carbon dates have established early mining activities dated at around 2280 to 1890 BC. The earliest identified metalworking site at Sigwells, Somerset is much later. It is dated by the presence of Globular Urn style pottery to approximately the 12th century BC. The identifiable sherds from over 500 mould fragments included a perfect fit of the hilt of a sword in the Wilburton style held in Somerset County Museum. The Bronze Age in Ireland commenced around 2000 BC when copper was alloyed with tin and used to manufacture Ballybeg type flat axes and associated metalwork. The preceding period is known as the Copper Age and was characterized by the production of flat axes, daggers, halberds and awls in copper. The Bronze Age in Ireland is divided into three phases. The first phase is known as the Early Bronze Age and ran from about 2000 to 1500 BC. The second phase is known as the Middle Bronze Age and ran from about 1500 to 1200 BC. Last the third phase is known as the Late Bronze Age and ran from about 1200 through 500 BC. Ireland is also known for a relatively large number of Early Bronze Age burials. One of the characteristic types of artifact of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland is the flat axe. There are five main types of flat axes. First was the Lough Ravel common to about 2200 BC. Second was the Ballybeg which was common to about 2000 BC. Third was the Killaha type flat axe also common to about 2000 BC. Fourth was the Ballyvalley type flat axe produced from about 2000–to 1600 BC. The fifth type of flat axe known as the Derryniggin type was common to about 1600 BC). There were also a number of metal ingots in the shape of axes. The Bronze Age in Northern Europe spans the entire 2nd millennium BC. This included the Unetice culture, Urnfield culture, Tumulus culture, Terramare culture, and Lusatian culture, and lasted through about 600 BC. The Northern Bronze Age was both a period and a Bronze Age culture in Scandinavian pre-history stretching from about 1700 through 500 BC. Sites reached as far east as Estonia. Succeeding the Late Neolithic culture its ethnic and linguistic affinities are unknown in the absence of written sources. It is followed by the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The Northern European Bronze Age cultures were relatively late. They came into existence via the external impetus of trade. Nonetheless Northern European Bronze Age sites present rich and well-preserved objects made of wool, wood and imported Central European bronze and gold. Many rock carvings depict ships. The large stone burial monuments known as stone ships suggest that shipping played an important role. There exist thousands of rock carvings depicting ships. Most probably representing sewn plank built canoes that were utilized in warfare, and for fishing and trade. These types of plank built canoes may have a history as far back as the Neolithic period. They continued in use into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as evidenced by the Hjortspring boat. There are many mounds and rock carving sites from the period. Numerous artifacts of bronze and gold are found. No written language existed in the Nordic countries during the Bronze Age. The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts. Arsenical bronze artifacts of the Maykop culture in the North Caucasus have been dated around the 4th millennium BC. The Maykop culture was responsible for the spread of arsenical bronze technology over southern and eastern Europe. The Yamnaya culture was a Late Copper Age/Early Bronze Age culture of the Southern Bug/Dniester/Ural region. The culture was prevalent in these locales of the of the Pontic steppes from about the 36th through 23rd centuries BC. The culture is also known in English as Pit-Grave Culture or Ochre-Grave Culture. The Catacomb culture comprised several related Early Bronze Age cultures. It occupied what is presently Russia and Ukraine during the period of about 2800 to 2200 BC. The Srubna culture was a Late Bronze Age culture which existed from the 18th to 12th centuries BC. It was a successor to the Yamnaya and the Poltavka cultures. Iron and copper smelting appeared around the same time in most parts of Africa. As such most African civilizations outside of Egypt did not experience a distinct Bronze Age. Evidence for iron smelting appears earlier or at the same time as copper smelting in Nigeria around 900 to 800 BC; Rwanda and Burundi somewhere between 700 and 500 BC; and Tanzania somewhere around 300 BC. There is a longstanding debate about whether the development of both copper and iron metallurgy were independently developed in sub-Saharan Africa or were introduced from the outside across the Sahara Desert from North Africa or the Indian Ocean. Evidence supporting either theory for independent development or outside introduction are scarce and subject to active scholarly debate. Scholars have suggested that both the relative dearth of archeological research in sub-Saharan Africa as well as long-standing prejudices have limited or biased our understanding of pre-historic metallurgy on the continent. The Bronze Age in Nubia however was well-established as early as 2300 BC. Copper smelting was introduced by Egyptians to the Nubian city of Meroë around 2600 BC. Meroë is located in modern-day Sudan. A furnace for casting bronze has been found in Kerma. The furnace is dated to between 2300 and 1900 BC. Copper smelting took place in West Africa prior to the appearance of iron smelting in the region. Evidence for copper smelting furnaces was found near Agadez, Niger that has been dated as early as 2200 BC. However the evidence is not conclusive. Many scholars argue that evidence for copper production in this region before 1000 BC is uncertain. Confirmed evidence of copper mining and smelting has been found at Akjoujt, Mauretania. The evidence is suggestive of small scale production during the period 800 to 400 BC. In pre-Columbian Mesoamerica the Moche civilization of South America independently discovered and developed bronze smelting. Bronze technology was developed further by the Incas and used widely both for utilitarian objects and sculpture. A later appearance of limited bronze smelting in Western Mexico suggests either contact of that region with Andean cultures or separate discovery of the technology. The Calchaquí people of Northwest Argentina also develop an indigenous bronze technology. Trade and industry played a major role in the development of the ancient Bronze Age civilizations. Artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. It is clear that these civilizations were not only in touch with each other but also trading with each other. Early long-distance trade was limited almost exclusively to luxury goods like spices, textiles and precious metals. Not only did this make cities with ample amounts of these products extremely rich, but also led to an intermingling of cultures for the first time in history. Trade routes were not only over land but also over water. The first and most extensive trade routes were over rivers such as the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates. This spurred the growth of cities on the banks of these rivers. The domestication of camels at a later time also helped encourage the use of trade routes over land. These overland routes linked the Indus Valley with the Mediterranean. This led to towns sprouting up in numbers anywhere and everywhere there was a pit-stop or caravan-to-ship port. SHIPPING & RETURNS/REFUNDS: We always ship books domestically (within the USA) via USPS INSURED media mail (“book rate”). Most international orders cost an additional $19.99 to $53.99 for an insured shipment in a heavily padded mailer. However this book is quite large and heavy, too large to fit into a flat rate mailer. Therefore the shipping costs are somewhat higher than what is otherwise ordinary. There is also a discount program which can cut postage costs by 50% to 75% if you’re buying about half-a-dozen books or more (5 kilos+). Our postage charges are as reasonable as USPS rates allow. ADDITIONAL PURCHASES do receive a VERY LARGE discount, typically about $5 per book (for each additional book after the first) so as to reward you for the economies of combined shipping/insurance costs. 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We do offer U.S. Postal Service Priority Mail, Registered Mail, and Express Mail for both international and domestic shipments, as well United Parcel Service (UPS) and Federal Express (Fed-Ex). Please ask for a rate quotation. We will accept whatever payment method you are most comfortable with. If upon receipt of the item you are disappointed for any reason whatever, I offer a no questions asked 30-day return policy. Send it back, I will give you a complete refund of the purchase price; 1) less our original shipping/insurance costs, 2) less any non-refundable fees imposed by eBay. Please note that though they generally do, eBay may not always refund payment processing fees on returns beyond a 30-day purchase window. So except for shipping costs and any payment processing fees not refunded by eBay, we will refund all proceeds from the sale of a return item. Obviously we have no ability to influence, modify or waive eBay policies. ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and Ebay goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds. Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting. Not everyone agrees – fully 95% or more of the antique gemstones which come into these marketplaces are recut, and the heritage of the past lost. But if you agree with us that the past is worth protecting, and that past lives and the produce of those lives still matters today, consider buying an antique, hand cut, natural gemstone rather than one of the mass-produced machine cut (often synthetic or “lab produced”) gemstones which dominate the market today. We can set most any antique gemstone you purchase from us in your choice of styles and metals ranging from rings to pendants to earrings and bracelets; in sterling silver, 14kt solid gold, and 14kt gold fill. When you purchase from us, you can count on quick shipping and careful, secure packaging. We would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from us. There is a $3 fee for mailing under separate cover. I will always respond to every inquiry whether via email or eBay message, so please feel free to write.
Price: 62.99 USD
Location: Lummi Island, Washington
End Time: 2024-07-24T20:35:10.000Z
Shipping Cost: 8.99 USD
Product Images
Item Specifics
Restocking Fee: No
Return shipping will be paid by: Buyer
All returns accepted: Returns Accepted
Item must be returned within: 30 Days
Refund will be given as: Money back or replacement (buyer's choice)
Brand: National Geographic
Publication Year: 2008
Type: Catalog
Format: HUGE Illustrated Softcover
Language: English
Era: Ancient
Length: 304 pages
Dimensions: 10 x 10 x 1 inch; 3¾ pounds
Publisher: National Geographic (2008)
Topic: Jewelry & Watches, Ancient World, Afghanistan, Social Studies, Cultural Studies, Culture, Social History, Regional History, World History, Ancient History, Central Asia, History of Technology, Treasure
